Without limiting the scope of the invention, its background is described in connection with the development of genetically modified whole cell cancer vaccines. More specifically, the present invention relates to vaccines capable of augmenting tumor antigen expression, presentation, and processing through expression of the GM-CSF transgene and attenuating secretory immunosuppressive activity of TGF-β via furin bi-functional shRNA transgene induced knockdown.
The prevailing hypothesis for immune tolerance to cancer vaccines include the low immunogenicity of the tumor cells, the lack of appropriate presentation by professional antigen presenting cells, immune selection of antigen-loss variants, tumor induced immunosuppression, and tumor induced privileged site. Whole cancer cell vaccines can potentially solicit broad-based, polyvalent immune responses to both defined and undefined tumor antigens, thereby addressing the possibility of tumor resistance through downregulation and/or selection for antigen-loss variants. A method for making a master cell bank of whole cell vaccines for the treatment of cancer can be found in U.S. Pat. No. 7,763,461 issued to Link et al. (2010). According to the '461 patent, tumor cells are engineered to express an α (1,3) galactosyl epitope through ex-vivo gene therapy protocols. The cells are then irradiated or otherwise killed and administered to a patient. The α-galactosyl epitope causes opsonization of the tumor cell enhancing uptake of the opsonized tumor cell by antigen presenting cells which results in enhanced tumor specific antigen presentation. The animal's immune system thus is stimulated to produce tumor specific cytotoxic cells and antibodies which will attack and kill tumor cells present in the animal.
Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, often abbreviated to GM-CSF, is a protein secreted by macrophages, T cells, mast cells, endothelial cells and fibroblasts. When integrated as a cytokine transgene, GM-CSF enhances presentation of cancer vaccine peptides, tumor cell lysates, or whole tumor cells from either autologous patient tumor cells or established allogeneic tumor cell lines. GM-CSF induces the differentiation of hematopoietic precursors and attracts them to the site of vaccination. GM-CSF also functions as an adjuvant for dendritic cell maturation and activation processes. However, GM-CSF-mediated immunosensitization can be suppressed by different isoforms of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) produced and/or secreted by tumor cells. The TGF-β family of multifunctional proteins possesses well known immunosuppressive activities. The three known TGF-β ligands (TGF-β1, -β2, and -β3) are ubiquitous in human cancers. TGF-β overexpression correlates with tumor progression and poor prognosis. Elevated TGF-β levels within the tumor microenvironment are linked to an anergic tumor response. TGF-β directly and indirectly inhibits GM-CSF induced maturation of dendritic cells and their expression of MHC class II and co-stimulatory molecules. This negative impact of TGF-β on GM-CSF-mediated immune activation supports the rationale of depleting TGF-β secretion in GM-CSF-based cancer cell vaccines.
All mature isoforms of TGF-β require furin-mediated limited proteolytic cleavage for proper activity. Furin, a calcium-dependent serine endoprotease, is a member of the subtilisin-like proprotein convertase family. Furin is best known for the functional activation of TGF-β with corresponding immunoregulatory ramifications. Apart from the previously described immunosuppressive activities of tumor secreted TGF-β, conditional deletion of endogenously expressed furin in T lymphocytes has been found to allow for normal T-cell development, but impaired function of regulatory and effector T cells, which produced less TGF-β1. Furin expression by T cells appears to be indispensable in maintaining peripheral tolerance, which is due, at least in part, to its non-redundant, essential function in regulating TGF-β1 production.
High levels of furin have been demonstrated in virtually all cancer lines. The inventors and others have found that up to a 10-fold higher level of TGF-β1 may be produced by human colorectal, lung cancer, and melanoma cells, and likely impact the immune tolerance state by a higher magnitude. The presence of furin in tumor cells likely contributes significantly to the maintenance of tumor directed, TGF-β-mediated peripheral immune tolerance. Hence furin knockdown represents a novel and attractive approach for optimizing GM-CSF-mediated immunosensitization and vaccine development. Chen et al. (2004) in U.S. Patent Application No. 20040242518 provide methods and compositions for inhibiting influenza infection and/or replication based on the phenomenon of RNAi as well as systems for identifying effective siRNAs and shRNAs for inhibiting influenza virus and systems for studying influenza virus infective mechanisms. The invention also provides methods and compositions for inhibiting infection, pathogenicity and/or replication of other infectious agents, particularly those that infect cells that are directly accessible from outside the body, e.g., skin cells or mucosal cells. In addition, the invention provides compositions comprising an RNAi-inducing entity, e.g., an siRNA, shRNA, or RNAi-inducing vector targeted to an influenza virus transcript and any of a variety of delivery agents. The invention further includes methods of use of the compositions for treatment of influenza.
Interferon-gamma (γIFN) is a key immunoregulatory cytokine that plays a critical role in the host innate and adaptive immune response and in tumor control. Also known as type II interferon, γIFN is a single-copy gene whose expression is regulated at multiple levels. γIFN coordinates a diverse array of cellular programs through transcriptional regulation of immunologically relevant genes. Initially, it was believed that CD4+ T helper cell type 1 (Th1) lymphocytes, CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes, and NK cells exclusively produced γIFN. However, there is now evidence that other cells, such as B cells, NKT cells, and professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) secrete γIFN. γIFN production by professional APCs [monocyte/macrophage, dendritic cells (DCs)] acting locally may be important in cell self-activation and activation of nearby cells. γIFN secretion by NK cells and possibly professional APCs is likely to be important in early host defense against infection, whereas T lymphocytes become the major source of γIFN in the adaptive immune response. Furthermore, a role for γIFN in preventing development of primary and transplanted tumors has been identified. γIFN production is controlled by cytokines secreted by APCs, most notably interleukins (IL) IL-12 and IL-18. Negative regulators of γIFN production include IL-4, IL-10, glucocorticoids, and TGF-β.